Lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS) is common in elderly and can significantly impair quality of life. With advances in minimally invasive spine surgery, techniques such as unilateral biportal endoscopy (UBE ...

Studies were included if they: Employed finite element analysis (FEA), multibody (MB) musculoskeletal modeling, hybrid FE–MB frameworks, or AI-enhanced computational modeling of the lumbar spine.